The three meters all contain a radioactive source and is claimed to operate in the entire range (0100% WLR, 0100% GVF ). Most importantly, this document proposes techniques to be used in the allocation of total production to individual contributing streams. Multiphase Flow Meters (MPFM) are devices used to measure the individual oil, water and gas flow rates in a multiphase flow. Demulsification of water-in-crude oil emulsions by a continuous electrostatic dehydrator. By using advanced full-gamma spectroscopy to capture multiphase flow dynamics at a single point in the venturi throat, the rugged Vx Spectra flowmeter enables real-time data monitoring and analysis to help you make better-informed decisions for maximizing reservoir productivity. Vena contracta is occurring just after the orifice plate as illustrated on, For vertical orifice plates the volumetric flow rate in terms of the pressure difference (, A lot of studies has shown the effectiveness of measuring the multi-phase flow by using a venturi meter [, To obtain the volumetric flow rate using a venturi meter, the same equation as the orifice plate is used. [. Contrary to this other MPFM will only need calibration when the accuracy of the data is drifting over time. ; Newell, J.C.; Isaacson, D.; Edic, P.M. Electrical impedance tomography. We are looking for mass flow meters for measuring the out put of our ASU. Not informed, butperforms good flowratemeasurements. Use of Subsea Wet-Gas Flowmeters in Allocation Measurement Systems, (includes Addendum 1 dated January 2013, whereby some sections were over-ridden by API MPMS 20.3). However, since end users are operating in countries or regions in which the use of a radioactive based multiphase flow meter is not allowed and/or condoned, some suppliers have been developing MPFM solutions which can provide reasonably accurate levels of perfor-mance without the use of radioactive based density measurement. #raisemyhouse #houser, Awesome project under way on James St Accessibility & Location: Describing meter accessibility in terms of remote/unmanned land-based operations, offshore unmanned operations, topside / onshore manned operations, and subsea applications are generally crucial for the smooth functioning of multiphase meter throughout its operational life. The compact, configurable Vx Spectra flowmeter uses full-gamma spectroscopy to accurately capture multiphase flow dynamics for real-time monitoring and analysis. Oosterbroek, R.; Lammerink, T.S. 2017. Thus in-situ validations of multiphase flow measurements are traditionally done through comparison with test-separator results. Take flowmetering technology to 20,000 psi. Vx Spectra. Discharge Coefficient for Nozzle and Orifices. 2011. Right Communication and Computation Requirements: To get the best use of multiphase meters, the data communication requirements should be specified, including parameters related to production intended for routine collection and those related to meter diagnostics to fulfil operational needs. U.S. Patent 5,485,743, 23 January 1996. 
December 2018. Only suitable for water-continuous flows. Data Sheet CT-s 585-E. 2014. Available online: Weatherford. This includes meter diagnostics for verification and field comparison of MPFM results with other field measurement systems part of system balance. Durdevic, P.; Pedersen, S.; Yang, Z. Arvoh, B.K. Magnetic resonance makes use of a fundamental property of atoms and in effect makes it possible to count hydrogen atoms. Three-Phase Flow Measurement in the Offshore Oil Industry: Is There a Place for Process Tomography? Vocabulary Provides definitions and terms used throughout the API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS). Out of the early prototypes developed based on dissimilar design and function, some were abandoned while others became commercially available. ; Sizov, Y.; Starostin, A.N. Multiphase Flow Meter O&M Manual. ; Johansen, G.A. The busy time is upon us.
prior to publication. - ; Slobodcicov, I.; Paz, E. Orifice plate meter field performance: Formulation and validation in multiphase flow conditions. Yang, W.; Li, Y.; Wu, Z.; Tsamakis, D.; Learmonth, D.; Xie, C.G. Non-Technical SummaryESIS Tyra. Maintain high-accuracy metering for the life of your well. ; Clark, W. Direct flow-pattern identification using electrical capacitance tomography. This type of Williams, T.J.; Bailey, A.G. Changes in the size distribution of a water-in-oil emulsion due to electric field induced coalescence. The statements, opinions and data contained in the journals are solely Verification is done by flowing comparable multiphase flow through the test separator / MPFM and comparing MPFM results with (metered) volumes (of gas, oil and water) obtained downstream of the test separator. Pietro Fiorentini devices for multiphase flow metering are non intrusive inline systems providing real time measurement of oil, water and gas flow rates, avoiding the use of large systems based on phase separation. Pietro Fiorentini Multiphase Flowmeter Flowatch 3I. This measurement principle also forms the basis of magnetic resonance based flow metering. Data Sheet. A multiphase flow meter should not operate beyond the OE to ensure specified metering performance and long-term reliability.
This helps achieve the water cut measurement error within 2% absolute for the full range of stated GVF in the meters operating envelope. - The phase fractions are derived from these two independent measurements and net oil flow rate is finally calculated using the gross liquid flow rate and water cut measurement.
Real-time production monitoring, especially in complex subsea installations, is only possible with multiphase flow meters. Mostly based on static experimental data. Every known physical multiphase flow metering solution relies on a com-bination of at least three or more different sensing technologies, one of the most common of which relies on the Venturi tube using differential pressure sensors to measure flow rate, combined together with another technol-ogy such as gamma ray attenuation to calculate the density and composition of the fluid and the mass/volume fractions of oil, gas and wa-ter. Available online: Pietro Fiorentini. These developments were collaborative efforts by research organizations and meter manufacturers with oil and gas production companies. Interface Detectors Oil Water Meters MPFM 50 Profiler, Upstream Applications Midstream Applications Downstream Applications, About Us Careers Environ/Safety ACI Code of Conduct, Terms of Use | Privacy Policy | agarcorp.com, Our mission is to be continuously creating innovative solutions and support that solve our customers unique and ever-changing measurement, control and automation, Well Testing by Multiphase Flow Meter in Ogdcl Nashpa Field, 2018 Agar Corporation | Process Measurement & Control Solutions. Agency, T.D.E.P. 2016. Specifically designed for surface production facilities and eliminating separation requirements, this compact flowmeter incorporates robust electronic components to increase reliability while minimizing downtime and reducing running costs. Li, W.; Pots, B.; Brown, B.; Kee, K.E. ; Tatsis, G.P. Click below to get started. - This article will cover monitoring of multi-phase flow in the main production upstream in the 1st stage separation process. Vx Omni Subsea Multiphase Flowmeter. For those suppliers that are deploying multiphase flow metering solutions which do not employ any radioactive technology, there are different combinations of sensing technologies that are suitable for a more limited set of applications, particularly as it relates to GVF less than 90 percent. ; Hou, L.H. This method is to be preferred in most cases, as this is non-intrusive, non-radioactive and cheap compared to other MPFM technologies. flow ultrasonic measurement previously pipes measurements where Available online: PerkinElmer. The development of MPFM is based on the principle of measurement of multiphase fluid flow by determining individual phase fractions, phase velocities and phase densities of gas, water and oil. Kim, B.Y. Yang, W.; Stott, A.; Beck, M.; Xie, C. Development of capacitance tomographic imaging systems for oil pipeline measurements. ECT mode when continuous phase is oil (WLR < 40%), ERT mode when continuous phase is water (WLR > 40%). Commonly, for density measurement, dual gamma-ray densitometers with different energy levels are used to calculate the gas fraction and water cut of the multiphase mixture. document.getElementById("ak_js_1").setAttribute("value",(new Date()).getTime()); Is it Easy to Measure Natural Gas Flow and Volume? Dickin, F.; Wang, M. Electrical resistance tomography for process applications. December 2018. Needs improvements of image quality, when frequency is increased. December 2018. Intended Purpose: Describing specific intent of multiphase measurement and closely matching well production profile predictions with the Operating Envelope of the selected meter. Not tested with gas injections. Xtreme HS Wetgas Meter. ; Fietz, J.; Hller, H.; Kernchen, R.; Prasser, H.M.; Zippe, C. Application of gamma tomography to the measurement of fluid distributions in a hydrodynamic coupling. ; Reviewing and editing, L.S.H and S.P and P.D. 
Roxar MPFM 2600 MVG. Raising your house might be the b, We love seeing our completed projects articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without Combining Magnetic Induction Tomography and Electromagnetic Velocity Tomography for Water Continuous Multiphase Flows. The objective of this review paper is to present the current trends and technologies within multi-phase flow measurements and to introduce the most promising methods based on parameters such as accuracy, footprint, safety, maintenance and calibration. In many cases suppliers also employ pressure and temperature transmitters to help develop the neces-sary PVT correlations (Pressure, Volume and Temperature) that help understand the effects on viscosity and density as downhole pressure makes the base oil more viscous and dense, whereas temperature has the opposite effect. ; Elias-Fuste, A.R. Another contributing factor to the expenses of maintenance is whether the equipment i located sub sea or above sea level. roxar metering multiphase meters #rais, Before & After Shot [. [, Smedstad, E.; MacKenzie, R.; Kerr, J.; Shepler, R.A.; Singh, R. System and Method for Controlling Subsea Wells. Cao, Z.; Wang, H.; Yang, W.; Yan, Y. Wet gas metering with a horizontally mounted Venturi meter. Atkinson, I.; Theuveny, B.; Berard, M.; Conort, G.; Groves, J.; Lowe, T.; McDiarmid, A.; Mehdizadeh, P.; Perciot, P.; Pinguet, B.; et al. Improved measurement performance.
Hasan, A. Multiphase Flow Rate Measurement Using a Novel Conductance Venturi Meter: Experimental and Theoretical Study in Different Flow Regimes. ; Eydinov, D. A multiscale method for distributed parameter estimation with application to reservoir history matching. We need a little more information from you before we can grant you access. Vx Spectra | Perfecting Metrological Performance, Technical Presentation | Modernize Your Flow Measurements. Measuring Flow in a Pipe. ; Chinedu, U. Rahuma, K.M. Steven, R.N. Operating Envelop describes performance expectations for a multiphase flow meter regarding liquid and gas flow rates, gas volume fraction and water-liquid ratio. Agar Multiphase Flow Meter MPFM-50 provides accurate, real-time measurements of oil, water and gas flows simultaneously without separation of the phases. Separation Method and Apparatus. 5% relative error (bubble and slug flow). Feature Papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. Yang, W. Design of electrical capacitance tomography sensors.
From the table it can be seen that the presented MPFMs with a radioactive source tends to have a better accuracy compared to the MPFMs with no radioactive source. ; Elwenspoek, M.C. Over the last two decades suppliers and related stakeholders have worked together to develop more accurate, more reliable and effective solutions to meet the challenges encountered when measuring multi-component phase flow. The design company will help you with this if need be and will provide the relevant town planning advice if its required for your project. 108111. There are not sub-categories for this object.Click on the left picture to go to the products page. 2022 Reproduction without explicit permission is prohibited. Pedersen, S.; Mai, C.; Hansen, L.; Durdevic, P.; Yang, Z. Online Slug Detection in Multi-phase Transportation Pipelines Using Electrical Tomography. Handling radioactive materials requires permission and experts to meet the given law [, For the MPFM to operate, it needs calibration in the form of input data from time to time. Even though gamma densitometers have the greatest overall accuracy and are able to measure the flow independent of the composition of the phases, the radioactive source is often a considerable limitation. Roxar Subsea Wetgas Meter. [.
Noradioactive source. Tjugum, S.; Hjertaker, B.; Johansen, G. Multiphase flow regime identification by multibeam gamma-ray densitometry. 2018.
Available online: Schlumberger. There are several major multiphase flow regimes recognized when describing flow encountered in oil and gas wells: bubble flow, plug flow, slug flow, stratified (smooth) flow, wavy stratified flow, and annular mist flow. The three most common types of radioactive materials employed include Americium 241, Barium 133 and Caesium 137. Fast and robust image restoration algorithm. permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. Method for improving history matching precision of reservoir numerical simulation. Available online: Weatherford. Kumara, W.; Halvorsen, B.; Melaaen, M. Single-beam gamma densitometry measurements of oilwater flow in horizontal and slightly inclined pipes.
This review article has presented and discussed the newest trends in the offshore oil and gas industry with respect to multi-phase flow measurements. Dyakowski, T. Process tomography applied to multi-phase flow measurement. ; Seinfeld, J.H. Guide to the Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials in Research. Expand the operating envelope of the Vx Spectra flowmeter with a lightweight, compact, and cost-efficient low-rate extender kit, enabling high-metrological performance in depleting wells. can have an influence of the maintenance of the instrument. Dong, F.; Jiang, Z.; Qiao, X.; Xu, L. Application of electrical resistance tomography to two-phase pipe flow parameters measurement. Kalaga, D.V. Available online: Grant, A.A.; Almdahl, P.; Gramme, P.E. Peter, U.C. flow transmitter yokogawa multivariable mass rate orifice measurement example figure The combination of these different measurements are complemented with advanced flow software modeling capability sufficient to provide as low a level of uncertainty among the various inputs being measured based on some key parameters, such as gas volume fraction (GVF), water-liquid ratio (WLR), liquid flow rate, and gas flow rate, among other parameters such as oil density, oil viscosity and salinity. ; Hammer, E.A. This document presents a recommended allocation methodology that best fits the application and that equitably accommodates variances in the uncertainty level between meters in the system. U.S. Patent 6,993,979, 7 February 2006. If the electrodes are frequently exposed to the gas phase (non-conducting phase), as will happen in horizontal pipes under stratified, wave, slug or plug flow, the electrodes might lose their continuous electrical contact with the measured flow [, Electromagnetic waves use the permittivity of a fluid to determine the fraction of each phase in a multi-phase flow [, One way to obtain electromagnetic waves is by using microwave tomography [, Electrical impedance has been described in [, Optical tomography uses illumination such as absorption, diffraction and reflection of light as a method to measure the multi-phase flow within a cross-section of a pipe [, Besides tomography another convenient technology is gamma densitometry. Permission for Discharge of Oil in Produced Water Total E&P Danmark A/S 21. Since oil, gas and water all contain hydrogen atoms, multiphase flow can be measured using magnetic resonance.
December 2018. Only suitable for water-continuous flows. Data Sheet CT-s 585-E. 2014. Available online: Weatherford. This includes meter diagnostics for verification and field comparison of MPFM results with other field measurement systems part of system balance. Durdevic, P.; Pedersen, S.; Yang, Z. Arvoh, B.K. Magnetic resonance makes use of a fundamental property of atoms and in effect makes it possible to count hydrogen atoms. Three-Phase Flow Measurement in the Offshore Oil Industry: Is There a Place for Process Tomography? Vocabulary Provides definitions and terms used throughout the API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS). Out of the early prototypes developed based on dissimilar design and function, some were abandoned while others became commercially available. ; Sizov, Y.; Starostin, A.N. Multiphase Flow Meter O&M Manual. ; Johansen, G.A. The busy time is upon us. prior to publication. - ; Slobodcicov, I.; Paz, E. Orifice plate meter field performance: Formulation and validation in multiphase flow conditions. Yang, W.; Li, Y.; Wu, Z.; Tsamakis, D.; Learmonth, D.; Xie, C.G. Non-Technical SummaryESIS Tyra. Maintain high-accuracy metering for the life of your well. ; Clark, W. Direct flow-pattern identification using electrical capacitance tomography. This type of Williams, T.J.; Bailey, A.G. Changes in the size distribution of a water-in-oil emulsion due to electric field induced coalescence. The statements, opinions and data contained in the journals are solely Verification is done by flowing comparable multiphase flow through the test separator / MPFM and comparing MPFM results with (metered) volumes (of gas, oil and water) obtained downstream of the test separator. Pietro Fiorentini devices for multiphase flow metering are non intrusive inline systems providing real time measurement of oil, water and gas flow rates, avoiding the use of large systems based on phase separation. Pietro Fiorentini Multiphase Flowmeter Flowatch 3I. This measurement principle also forms the basis of magnetic resonance based flow metering. Data Sheet. A multiphase flow meter should not operate beyond the OE to ensure specified metering performance and long-term reliability.
This helps achieve the water cut measurement error within 2% absolute for the full range of stated GVF in the meters operating envelope. - The phase fractions are derived from these two independent measurements and net oil flow rate is finally calculated using the gross liquid flow rate and water cut measurement.
Real-time production monitoring, especially in complex subsea installations, is only possible with multiphase flow meters. Mostly based on static experimental data. Every known physical multiphase flow metering solution relies on a com-bination of at least three or more different sensing technologies, one of the most common of which relies on the Venturi tube using differential pressure sensors to measure flow rate, combined together with another technol-ogy such as gamma ray attenuation to calculate the density and composition of the fluid and the mass/volume fractions of oil, gas and wa-ter. Available online: Pietro Fiorentini. These developments were collaborative efforts by research organizations and meter manufacturers with oil and gas production companies. Interface Detectors Oil Water Meters MPFM 50 Profiler, Upstream Applications Midstream Applications Downstream Applications, About Us Careers Environ/Safety ACI Code of Conduct, Terms of Use | Privacy Policy | agarcorp.com, Our mission is to be continuously creating innovative solutions and support that solve our customers unique and ever-changing measurement, control and automation, Well Testing by Multiphase Flow Meter in Ogdcl Nashpa Field, 2018 Agar Corporation | Process Measurement & Control Solutions. Agency, T.D.E.P. 2016. Specifically designed for surface production facilities and eliminating separation requirements, this compact flowmeter incorporates robust electronic components to increase reliability while minimizing downtime and reducing running costs. Li, W.; Pots, B.; Brown, B.; Kee, K.E. ; Tatsis, G.P. Click below to get started. - This article will cover monitoring of multi-phase flow in the main production upstream in the 1st stage separation process. Vx Omni Subsea Multiphase Flowmeter. For those suppliers that are deploying multiphase flow metering solutions which do not employ any radioactive technology, there are different combinations of sensing technologies that are suitable for a more limited set of applications, particularly as it relates to GVF less than 90 percent. ; Hou, L.H. This method is to be preferred in most cases, as this is non-intrusive, non-radioactive and cheap compared to other MPFM technologies. flow ultrasonic measurement previously pipes measurements where Available online: PerkinElmer. The development of MPFM is based on the principle of measurement of multiphase fluid flow by determining individual phase fractions, phase velocities and phase densities of gas, water and oil. Kim, B.Y. Yang, W.; Stott, A.; Beck, M.; Xie, C. Development of capacitance tomographic imaging systems for oil pipeline measurements. ECT mode when continuous phase is oil (WLR < 40%), ERT mode when continuous phase is water (WLR > 40%). Commonly, for density measurement, dual gamma-ray densitometers with different energy levels are used to calculate the gas fraction and water cut of the multiphase mixture. document.getElementById("ak_js_1").setAttribute("value",(new Date()).getTime()); Is it Easy to Measure Natural Gas Flow and Volume? Dickin, F.; Wang, M. Electrical resistance tomography for process applications. December 2018. Needs improvements of image quality, when frequency is increased. December 2018. Intended Purpose: Describing specific intent of multiphase measurement and closely matching well production profile predictions with the Operating Envelope of the selected meter. Not tested with gas injections. Xtreme HS Wetgas Meter. ; Fietz, J.; Hller, H.; Kernchen, R.; Prasser, H.M.; Zippe, C. Application of gamma tomography to the measurement of fluid distributions in a hydrodynamic coupling. ; Reviewing and editing, L.S.H and S.P and P.D. Roxar MPFM 2600 MVG. Raising your house might be the b, We love seeing our completed projects articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without Combining Magnetic Induction Tomography and Electromagnetic Velocity Tomography for Water Continuous Multiphase Flows. The objective of this review paper is to present the current trends and technologies within multi-phase flow measurements and to introduce the most promising methods based on parameters such as accuracy, footprint, safety, maintenance and calibration. In many cases suppliers also employ pressure and temperature transmitters to help develop the neces-sary PVT correlations (Pressure, Volume and Temperature) that help understand the effects on viscosity and density as downhole pressure makes the base oil more viscous and dense, whereas temperature has the opposite effect. ; Elias-Fuste, A.R. Another contributing factor to the expenses of maintenance is whether the equipment i located sub sea or above sea level. roxar metering multiphase meters #rais, Before & After Shot [. [, Smedstad, E.; MacKenzie, R.; Kerr, J.; Shepler, R.A.; Singh, R. System and Method for Controlling Subsea Wells. Cao, Z.; Wang, H.; Yang, W.; Yan, Y. Wet gas metering with a horizontally mounted Venturi meter. Atkinson, I.; Theuveny, B.; Berard, M.; Conort, G.; Groves, J.; Lowe, T.; McDiarmid, A.; Mehdizadeh, P.; Perciot, P.; Pinguet, B.; et al. Improved measurement performance. Hasan, A. Multiphase Flow Rate Measurement Using a Novel Conductance Venturi Meter: Experimental and Theoretical Study in Different Flow Regimes. ; Eydinov, D. A multiscale method for distributed parameter estimation with application to reservoir history matching. We need a little more information from you before we can grant you access. Vx Spectra | Perfecting Metrological Performance, Technical Presentation | Modernize Your Flow Measurements. Measuring Flow in a Pipe. ; Chinedu, U. Rahuma, K.M. Steven, R.N. Operating Envelop describes performance expectations for a multiphase flow meter regarding liquid and gas flow rates, gas volume fraction and water-liquid ratio. Agar Multiphase Flow Meter MPFM-50 provides accurate, real-time measurements of oil, water and gas flows simultaneously without separation of the phases. Separation Method and Apparatus. 5% relative error (bubble and slug flow). Feature Papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. Yang, W. Design of electrical capacitance tomography sensors.
From the table it can be seen that the presented MPFMs with a radioactive source tends to have a better accuracy compared to the MPFMs with no radioactive source. ; Elwenspoek, M.C. Over the last two decades suppliers and related stakeholders have worked together to develop more accurate, more reliable and effective solutions to meet the challenges encountered when measuring multi-component phase flow. The design company will help you with this if need be and will provide the relevant town planning advice if its required for your project. 108111. There are not sub-categories for this object.Click on the left picture to go to the products page. 2022 Reproduction without explicit permission is prohibited. Pedersen, S.; Mai, C.; Hansen, L.; Durdevic, P.; Yang, Z. Online Slug Detection in Multi-phase Transportation Pipelines Using Electrical Tomography. Handling radioactive materials requires permission and experts to meet the given law [, For the MPFM to operate, it needs calibration in the form of input data from time to time. Even though gamma densitometers have the greatest overall accuracy and are able to measure the flow independent of the composition of the phases, the radioactive source is often a considerable limitation. Roxar Subsea Wetgas Meter. [.
Noradioactive source. Tjugum, S.; Hjertaker, B.; Johansen, G. Multiphase flow regime identification by multibeam gamma-ray densitometry. 2018.
Available online: Schlumberger. There are several major multiphase flow regimes recognized when describing flow encountered in oil and gas wells: bubble flow, plug flow, slug flow, stratified (smooth) flow, wavy stratified flow, and annular mist flow. The three most common types of radioactive materials employed include Americium 241, Barium 133 and Caesium 137. Fast and robust image restoration algorithm. permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. Method for improving history matching precision of reservoir numerical simulation. Available online: Weatherford. Kumara, W.; Halvorsen, B.; Melaaen, M. Single-beam gamma densitometry measurements of oilwater flow in horizontal and slightly inclined pipes. This review article has presented and discussed the newest trends in the offshore oil and gas industry with respect to multi-phase flow measurements. Dyakowski, T. Process tomography applied to multi-phase flow measurement. ; Seinfeld, J.H. Guide to the Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials in Research. Expand the operating envelope of the Vx Spectra flowmeter with a lightweight, compact, and cost-efficient low-rate extender kit, enabling high-metrological performance in depleting wells. can have an influence of the maintenance of the instrument. Dong, F.; Jiang, Z.; Qiao, X.; Xu, L. Application of electrical resistance tomography to two-phase pipe flow parameters measurement. Kalaga, D.V. Available online: Grant, A.A.; Almdahl, P.; Gramme, P.E. Peter, U.C. flow transmitter yokogawa multivariable mass rate orifice measurement example figure The combination of these different measurements are complemented with advanced flow software modeling capability sufficient to provide as low a level of uncertainty among the various inputs being measured based on some key parameters, such as gas volume fraction (GVF), water-liquid ratio (WLR), liquid flow rate, and gas flow rate, among other parameters such as oil density, oil viscosity and salinity. ; Hammer, E.A. This document presents a recommended allocation methodology that best fits the application and that equitably accommodates variances in the uncertainty level between meters in the system. U.S. Patent 6,993,979, 7 February 2006. If the electrodes are frequently exposed to the gas phase (non-conducting phase), as will happen in horizontal pipes under stratified, wave, slug or plug flow, the electrodes might lose their continuous electrical contact with the measured flow [, Electromagnetic waves use the permittivity of a fluid to determine the fraction of each phase in a multi-phase flow [, One way to obtain electromagnetic waves is by using microwave tomography [, Electrical impedance has been described in [, Optical tomography uses illumination such as absorption, diffraction and reflection of light as a method to measure the multi-phase flow within a cross-section of a pipe [, Besides tomography another convenient technology is gamma densitometry. Permission for Discharge of Oil in Produced Water Total E&P Danmark A/S 21. Since oil, gas and water all contain hydrogen atoms, multiphase flow can be measured using magnetic resonance.
